However, scaling automated classification is difficult, as current state-of-the-art algorithms require a large amount of labeled examples 32, which are usually not available. These developments have helped to map mining extents in many regions 27, 28, 29, 30, 31. Alternatively, automated classification algorithms to monitor land-use changes have rapidly advanced due to the increasing availability of satellite images and computational infrastructure 22, 23, 24, 25, 26.

This approach is effective and precise but can be costly and time-intensive, therefore, posing challenges to producing comprehensive accounts of global mining areas. Visual interpretation of satellite images 9, for example, has been applied to map the 295 most relevant mining sites in terms of commodities production across the world 20, 21.

Satellite images are an important source of information on mining extents complementing surveys and statistics. These data sources alone are therefore not sufficient for a comprehensive assessment of the impacts related to the direct land use of global mining. They include, for example, commodity classifications, produced volumes, and approximate location of the sites, but not their geographic extents. These databases, however, focus on commodities production, not on land use or other environmental aspects. Yet, to date information about mining areas worldwide is not available.ĭatabases on the global mining sector are regularly updated by national geological services, mining industries, associations, and information services 18, 19. Data on land use of mining is also important to further develop land footprint indicators that inform about land required along global supply chains to satisfy final consumption of products 16, 17. Such an indicator supports the implementation and monitoring of several Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), as mining impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem services can be reduced by limiting mining areas 15. The direct land used by mining is a crucial indicator of environmental pressure, which is closely associated with a range of negative impacts, including fragmentation and degradation of ecosystems and biodiversity loss 10, 11, 12, 13, 14. Growing demand for essential minerals and declining quality of ores 4, 5, 6 lead to larger volumes of unused material extracted and disposed 7, increasing appropriation of land 8, 9. Global extraction of minerals grew at an unprecedented pace in the past decades, causing a wide range of social and environmental impacts around the world 1, 2, 3.

Global grid map